Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\18460000 （ Direct Cost: \14200000 、 Indirect Cost：\4260000 ）

At first we defined tentatively the fundamental notions as “popular basis a conflicts”, “technological basis of conflicts”, “arms habituation”, “arms literacy”, “moral question against arms”. Secondly using these notions we clarified that the following three points are important as preventive norms of conflicts; (1) interdependent relationship between existence and intensity of arms literacy as a socially tacit understanding on the one hand, and effective control over arms transfer and arms procurement on the other hand, (2)appropriate protection to people who are psychologically and physically vulnerable to arms, and (3)ethics which recognize “arms superiority” not aesthetic. After these intellectual and empirical procedure we establish the conditions necessary for proposing a more effective system of norms to settle and prevent military and paramilitary conflicts than existing conflict preventive programs.

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Authorship：Principal investigator 

Grant amount：\4810000 （ Direct Cost: \3700000 、 Indirect Cost：\1110000 ）

This study defines a terror organization as a group that employs organized physical violence as major means to realize its political objectives. The study focuses on cross border activities of such groups, and assesses their effects on regional or international systems. To this purpose, a case study is carried out in the Balkans on the eve of the First World War. Four groups were examined: The Serbian “Black Hand,” Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, Committee of Unity and Progress (esp. its Enver gourp) and Armenian Revolutionary Federation. All of them were nationalist in their political orientation, and, thus, had different, often mutually incompatible, objectives. Our study, however, found many traces of their cooperation and dense ideological and tactical exchanges. The four groups’ rivalry and implementing joint operation so amplified political instabilities that the regional political system was untenable, and eventually prepared the precondition for WWI.

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Authorship：Principal investigator 

Grant amount：\17940000 （ Direct Cost: \13800000 、 Indirect Cost：\4140000 ）

The major findings of this research project are as follows. Both in terms of historical memories and practical changes, the First World War for the Eastern European peripheries was the continuation of the Balkan Wars that broke out in 1912. Thus, the preparation of war mobilization and related reforms in the socio-economic structures started earlier than the Western countries. The process was, however, retarded and could not achieve the expected result, no the less. It was this inconsistency that hindered the rapid recovery of war damage and normal return to the prewar parliament government. It precipitated the repeated military intervention into the civil authorities, and led to the establishment of authoritarian rules in the 1920. Our research shows that the international terrorist organizations that were much en-powered during the war were playing much more important roles than had been expected by the scholars, and it remains as one of the key questions to be solved.

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Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\17810000 （ Direct Cost: \13700000 、 Indirect Cost：\4110000 ）

In this study, specialists in the former Soviet Bloc and Turkey cooperated to analyze the Black Sea Rims, a new macro-region having emerged after the Cold War. The Black Sea Rims do not have the tradition of nation state, and transnational actors play important roles there. Among various transnational actors this study focused on religious organizations (Orthodoxy, Islam, and anti-Chalcedon Christianity) and trans-border minorities, such as Vlachs, Kurds, Mingrelians, and Armenians, and challenged the traditional state-centered understanding of this region.

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Authorship：Collaborating Investigator(s) (not designated on Grant-in-Aid) 

Grant amount：\47060000 （ Direct Cost: \36200000 、 Indirect Cost：\10860000 ）

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Authorship：Principal investigator 

Grant amount：\12400000 （ Direct Cost: \12400000 ）

This study focused on a hypothesis that ethnic cleansing was a modern phenomenon based on a principle that state should be built on an ethnic nation. In three years of research, we have compared cases, both modern and pre-modern, of Europe, Eurasia, Middle East, Africa, East Asia. As a result, we found the trend that ethnic cleansing began in early modern Europe, then it spread over the Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Middle East, Asia, Africa, and former Soviet Union. In this way, we concluded we had proved the validity of our hypothesis. In the course of our study, we have found another important fact concerning the mechanism of ethnic cleansing. This is a result of our study of the Bosnian Civil War. The war in Bosnia was a by-product of disintegration of Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia was broke up after suffering pressure of detente and international financial crisis in the 1980s, and the collapse of the Eastern Block in 1989. The fatal blow came from the multi-party elections in 1990. After the elections, Yugoslavia lost control of constitutional order, then control over military, as the separatist republics launched to build their own armies by illegal means. Most of population began to fear their security of life and property, and gradually lost their old identities that had been the base of multi-ethnic society. Nationalist politicians exploited wide spread fear by exaggerating the memory of genocide of WWII. They especially made use of paramilitary groups in this process. Although paramilitaries were composed of criminal elements, they became an acceptable form manipulating the tradition of national liberation fighters. As a conclusion, control over violence, especially removal of paramilitaries in the earlier stage of conflict is the key to prevent ethnic cleansing from becoming dominant form.

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Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\16110000 （ Direct Cost: \15000000 、 Indirect Cost：\1110000 ）

The aim of this research project was to compare the school history textbooks used in the Balkan countries. As criteria for analysis, we paid our attention whether the authors of the Balkan history textbooks included the description from viewpoints of the common Balkan region above their nation states. We also focused on the Joint History Project (JHP) and the Common History Workbooks by the Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in Southeast Europe (CDRSEE), a NGO based in Thessaloniki, Greece, as a strive by the Balkan history researchers and teachers to overcome the biased views against the neighboring countries stemmed from their own "national histories".
As for publicizing our research, we held two international symposiums in 2005 and in 2007. As tamers, we invited the researchers and teachers, who are actively involved in the JHP in order that we may compare their experiences with that of Japanese history researchers working to produce the common history textbooks of the East Asia region.
As results of our research, it becomes clear that, on the one hand, the frameworks of the "national history' strongly remains in the history textbooks in the Balkan countries, and that even in 1990s the intentions of the governments reflected in the textbooks. On the other hand, there is a straggle from the Balkans itself to construct the common "Balkan history' as the JHP's activities display. We recognize that their experiences are useful in the East Asia as well. But it is also obvious that the JHP's efforts faced the fierce resistance from the supporters of the "traditional" history descriptions. Moreover, the JHP's Workbooks could not base on a single narrative of the Balkan history because of the diversity of existing national histories. Such outcomes shows that it is still difficult to relativize the "national history" and that we still rued to struggle to overcome it.

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Grant type：Competitive

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Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\36530000 （ Direct Cost: \28100000 、 Indirect Cost：\8430000 ）

The Eastern Mediterranean has enjoyed a long history of inter-regional exchange, having sophisticated systems of movement both on sea and land. The area has developed highly plural and complex societies open to outsiders who wished to migrate to and settle at the land of the oldest civilization. The Eastern Mediterranean people have kept high human mobility (integration of geographical and social mobility). On the other hand, throughout the modern periods, they have experienced various ethnic and sectarian conflicts, such as the Palestine Question, civil wars of Lebanon and former Yugoslavia, division of Cyprus, etc. For the sublation of the two contradicting phenomena, we introduced a key notion of "protection." The Arab Bedouins have a long tradition to protect persons coming into their territories in accordance with contracts. This pre-Islamic-rooted customs of building security with the Other were adopted by Islamic states in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire established unilateral relationship with European countries which implored to be given the Capitulations from the Sultans. Basing on the Islamic Laws, the Ottoman Sultans assured all the human beings' security in the domain, and those Ottoman subjects who were employed by the European diplomats were not exception. The turning point for the beginning of national/ethnic/sectarian conflicts in the area was when the European powers succeeded in usurping the right of protection of Ottoman non Muslims by distorting the articles of the Capitulation. This trend continues until the 21st century; France still claims its special relationship with Lebanese Catholic population. The fact that Palestinians today have no "protector"-the international laws are not applied to them-requires the urgent necessity to establish a new protecting system, which must be based on the observance of civil rights and sustainable against political violence. "Human Security" may have a degree of potential.

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Grant type：Competitive

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Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\41140000 （ Direct Cost: \34000000 、 Indirect Cost：\7140000 ）

This study aimed to examine 1) how nationalism and national consciousness emerged in the modern history of Eastern Europe and Central Eurasia in new theoretical perspectives on nationalism using historical materials which became available to historians under the new political conditions of the Post-Communist Eurasian countries, and 2) how local historians are (re)writing their national history under new conditions of multiple transformations in the Post-Communist era.
More than sixty case studies on these topics were reported in six workshops and an international symposium which were held by this project, and the most part of them have been published in five volumes of proceedings. Many of these case studies are successful to describe the emerging process of nationalism and national consciousness in this area from the constructivist viewpoint as well as pronounced primordialistic tendency in the historiography of the new republics which were established after the collapse of the three federations of this area.

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Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\24100000 （ Direct Cost: \24100000 ）

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Authorship：Principal investigator 

Grant amount：\900000 （ Direct Cost: \900000 ）

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Authorship：Coinvestigator(s) 

Grant amount：\38400000 （ Direct Cost: \38400000 ）

The general objective of our three year project is to investigate how the symbiotic social systems function within the heterogeneous and migration-oriented societies where Muslims are in majority. Geographically our project covered the vast area including Eastern Europe and Turkey westernmost and the Chinese coast easternmost. Special attention was paid to pieties toward local mausoleums.
In each year emphasis was put on different regions : the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts of Bulgaria and Turkey (1994) ; the Persian Gulf coast in Iran and Pakistan (1995) ; and the Central Asia and the chinese coast area (1996).
The main results of our project are as follows :
1. Pieties toward local mausoleums are quite widespread in the Muslim societies.
2. Pieties toward local mausoleums, eapecially those toward Hizr mausoleums, have an important function for heterogeneous members of societies to be united.
3. Our reseasrch in Turkey has revealed that the cult of Hizr is also widespread there and that a lot of local varieties are observed.
4. From our research in the Persian Gulf region it has been made clear that Hizr mausoleums are widely distributed in the Persian Gulf and in the Indus valley and that it functions as the cult of fishermen.
5. Based on our research in China we have reached such hypothesis that the cult of Hizr, brought to China in Nan-Song period, had an influence on the Mazu cult in China.
6. In Central Asia, we have also found widely distributed Islam mausoleums, which have the same function in uniting different members of heterogeneous societies as hizr mausoleums have in other regions.
Some supplementary researches were also carried out. In Israel, Oman and Uzbekistan ethno-and sociolinguistic research was made for collecting data on the symbiosis in multi-religious and multi-lingual societies.
All the results of our project shows that in a heterogeneous and multi-strata society in Muslim area a certain social systems, such as the cult of Hizr, play an important role to maintain the symbiosis of different members of a society.

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Authorship：Principal investigator  Grant type：Competitive

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